Womens Engagement in Politics

Womens Engagement in Politics Why are there relatively few women engaged in political activity? Introduction It is evident that women are underrepresented in government and in general do not engage in political activity in the same numbers as men do. Various explanations have been used to explain this phenomenon: entrenched discrimination on the part of candidate selectors, elite theory as well as the Supply and Demand Model. This paper visits each explanation in turn finding some value in each. Finally, the argument is made that another possibility is that the system has been created by men for men. When states and constitutions were created in today’s developing countries, women did not have the right to vote, own property or engage in any political activity. Therefore, one could argue that the terms of the social contract on which liberal democracies are based are male- centric and do not allow for the equal representation of women. Theoretical Perspectives: Women and Democracy Beyond the basic interpretation of democracy as â€Å"rule by the people†, scholars have noted that democracy has evolved, changing over time and space and responding to evolution in public affairs. As explained by Meny â€Å"it is commonly accepted that democracy has varied over time, evolving from a rather elitist and restrictive form to a more open and participatory form of government† (Meny, 2002, p.10). Dahl identifies three evolutionary waves, or â€Å"transformations† of democracy, from the Greek city- state to the republic and finally to the nation- state (Dahl, 1989). Furthermore, Dahl identifies the basic criteria for a democratic process as: effective participation, voting equality at the decisive stage, enlightened understanding, control of the agenda by the people, and equal opportunity (Dahl, 1989). Effective participation is the requirement for citizens to have an equal chance of expressing preference for the political outcome, and their choice should be weighed as equal to that of any other citizen. Enlightened understanding means that citizens should be informed in their choice and have an understanding of the system. At first glance, therefore, one would be surprised with the arguments posed by some Feminists that standard definitions of democracy such as the above are discriminatory against women and legitimize a gender- biased system. Waylen asserts: â€Å"democracy defined in these ways becomes a ‘political method’ simply an institutional arrangement to generate and legitimize leadership† (Waylen, 1994, p.332). To help us understand statements like these, we should consider the distinction between different kinds of â€Å"equality† and the historic inequality democratic systems have imposed on women. There is an important distinction between equality of opportunity and equality of result. If a system merely aims at equality of opportunity then giving women the right to vote and come forward as candidates would be an end in itself; but if equality of result is sought, then one would see that external factors diminish the value of equality of opportunity (Karam ed. 199 8). A historic overview of â€Å"democracy† reveals that as a system in application, it is embedded with inequality. The democrats in ancient Greece excluded women, slaves and immigrants and considered foreigners to be â€Å"barbarians† and therefore inferior to the Greeks. At a minimum, democracy requires that people have the right to vote, and this right was not given to women until recently: 1919 in West Germany, 1920 in the USA, 1921 in the UK and 1971 in Switzerland (just to name a few examples of developed and democratic states). In accounting for this inequality, Feminists emphasize the concept of patriarchy and the distinction between the public and private sphere. Patriarchy[1] means â€Å"rule by fathers† and mainstream political theory argues that this system has been obsolete and no longer n existence since more than three hundred years ago. Feminists, however, have always been pointing out that it still exists. Pateman argues that patriarchy has been replaced by â€Å"fraternity†[2] through the establishment of the social contract. Patriarchy has its foundations in the separation between the public and the private sphere, thereby keeping women confined in the private sphere, removed from politics: â€Å"The division of public and private life as one that differentiates the woman (private) from the man (public) is the overarching ideological tool of patriarchy† (Corrin 1999 quoting Eisenstein 1984). Liberal Democracy This system aims to check both the tyranny of the majority and the abuse of power by a government, usually through a system of checks and balances. The system merely aims at equality of opportunity (and not equality of result or of condition) and accountability through voting. It assumes that society consists of a plurality of interests which compete with each other over influence over political outcomes. As a result of this competition a stalemate may occur which means little or piece meal change to the system can be achieved and thus the status quo perpetuates. This model embraces the distinction between the public and private sphere. [3] Feminists therefore criticize liberal democracy and assert that inequalities between husband and wife reduce the value of political life for women. Feminists also feel that a â€Å"gender- neutral† approach to citizenship (as is proposed by liberal democracy) actually serves to exclude women. Phillips argues that concepts such as the individual, citizenship, rights etc are male categories (Phillips, 1991). Participatory Democracy This model requires social equality and emphasizes participation. It challenges the private- public distinction and proposes that for democracy to be meaningful in the public sphere there must also be democracy in the private sphere. Feminists agree that voting is not enough and that there must be discussion and participation. However, feminists argue that this model also creates an elite of â€Å"active† citizens. As certain categories of women such as housewives have less free time, they are less able to be â€Å"active† in public affairs and would therefore be disadvantaged. Elite Theory Elite theory assumes that throughout history there has been a group of people who â€Å"rule† and the rest who are ruled by them. Essentially this theory is about power and its distribution. Gaetano Mosca argues that the existence of the elite and its dominance depends on its organizational position and abilities. Mosca believes that the more organized minority will prevail over the less organized majority. Mosca distinguishes between an upper stratum elite (small group of political decision- makers) and a lower stratum of the elite, who perform lesser political functions. Mosca saw elite- formation as inevitable; if the mass were to rise against the elite and replace it in government, another small group would rise from within the masses and prevail over the rest. Mosca saw elite theory and democracy as compatible (Rush, 1992). Michels drew upon Mosca’s â€Å"iron law of oligarchy† and argued that like all other organizations, political parties are dominated by their leadership. Pareto diverges from the Marxist notion that the elite are defined in economic terms, and argues instead that it is human attributes such as motivation and abilities which define it (Rush, 1992). Political Recruitment The Selection Process Norris and Lovenduski identify three levels of analyzing political recruitment: a) systematic factors such as the legal system, the electoral system and the party system, which set the context for analysis, b) context- setting factors such as party organization, rules and ideology, c) factors influencing directly the recruitment of individual candidates such as resources and motivations of applicants and the attitudes of â€Å"gatekeepers† (Norris and Lovenduski, 1995). The recruitment process is generally evaluated by testing whether the system is democratic (involving local activists and grassroots members), whether it is fair (treating all applicants equally), whether it is efficient (as a decision- making process) and whether it is effective in producing candidates of a high standard (Norris and Lovenduski, 1995). There are six main types of selection process and these are: 1) informal- centralized, where constitutional mechanisms may be in place but in essence patronage controls outcomes and rules are largely symbolic 2) informal – regional where factions bargain in order to get good positions for their candidates, 3) informal- localized where the decision over which selection procedure will be used depends on local groups and therefore procedures vary and the system is open to manipulation by small groups 4, 5) formal- centralized/ formal- regional where party leaders at national or at regional level have the power to choose candidates and 6) formal- localized where constitutional rules and guidelines create a standard procedure and all applicants are treated equally (Norris and Lovenduski, 1995). According to Norris and Lovenduski: â€Å"in the long term the main change in recruitment within British parties has been in process rather than power. There has been a gradual evolution from an ‘informal- localized’ system based on patronage in the nineteenth century towards more ‘formal- localized’ system today based on more meritocratic standards† (Norris and Lovenduski, 1995, p.5). Supply and Demand In analyzing trends in political recruitment, Norris and Lovenduski present the Supply and Demand Model : â€Å"based on a ‘supply and demand’ model, the study distinguishes between the factors influencing the ‘supply’ of candidates willing to come forward and the factors influencing the ‘demand’ of party selectors in making their decisions† ((Norris and Lovenduski, 1995, p.14). On the Demand side, selectors choose based on perceptions of the candidates’ abilities, experience etc. Such perceptions can be affected by discrimination and stereotyping either in a positive r in a negative way. Direct discrimination is judging people as members of groups instead of as individuals. Imputed discrimination amounts to selectors favouring certain categories of candidates e.g. women or racial minorities (Norris and Lovenduski, 1995). On the Supply side, selectors may argue that certain categories of people such as women do not come forward as candidates. Motivation and constrained resources may affect potential candidacies. Also, demand and supply are inter-related; some may be deterred from coming forward out of fear of discrimination (Norris and Lovenduski, 1995). Applied to the case of women, the Demand side proposes that women may have lower resources in terms of money and time as well as lower levels of political ambition and confidence. On the supply side, selector may employ direct or imputed discrimination against women: â€Å"the basic problem is that selectors are not enthusiastic about women candidates. They believe the electorate does not want them. They do not see women as having the same commitment as men. They do not know how to categorize them †¦ in short, they apply different standards† (Norris and Lovenduski, 1995, p.115 quoting Mitchell 1982). Party Selection In the Conservative Party, following the Chelmer Report 1972 the rules guiding procedures were revised. This slightly strengthened the role of party members at the expense of the constituency executive committee. In 1980 the Conservative Central Office introduced managerialist selection boards to scrutinize candidates on the Approved List before they could apply. These boards aimed to produce better quality candidates and fairer procedures (Norris and Lovenduski, 1995). The Labour general party modernization in the 1980s included selection rules reform. Thus, there was a mandatory reselection for incumbents, a formalized selection procedure and power shifted downwards to an electoral college of all members. To encourage more women candidates the Party altered short listing rules and introduced more training programs (Norris and Lovenduski, 1995). For the general election 1997 Labour introduced women-only shortlists whereby a proportion of local parties were required to shortlist only women candidates for selection. The policy was then withdrawn as it was found in breach of the Sex Discrimination Act 1975. The Electoral System According to Norris and Lovenduski â€Å"the British electoral system is commonly seen as contributing towards the localism of the selection process, by strengthening the links between individual MPs and their constituency† (Norris and Lovenduski, 1995, p.28). The British first- pass- the post system is based on a 651 plurality, single member districts and opportunities are determined by the number of seats. Voters can vote for or against individual candidates, but have no say over who is placed before them as a candidate (Norris and Lovenduski, 1995). The incumbency turnover further constrains opportunities to enter parliament. The rise of â€Å"careerism† whereby MPs enter parliament at a younger age and see their position as a career further supports this proposition. The party system is a further constraint; traditionally the UK was considered a two- party system, but this has gradually been weakened in the post- war period (Norris and Lovenduski, 1995). Conclusions: Accounting for Women’s Under representation The Discrimination Argument Some feel that women are discriminated against by part selectors: â€Å"discrimination by gatekeepers is probably one of the most common explanations of the social bias in our parliament† (Norris and Lovenduski, 1995, p.123). However, it is difficult to establish proof of this discrimination. Others feel that at present the system is open to women and explain the under representation in terms of structural constraints such as lack of confidence or the difficulty to combine family life with a career in politics (Norris and Lovenduski, 1995). There is also the argument that selectors may not be biased themselves, but may feel that the electorate has biased perceptions. Therefore, to avoid ‘losing’ they do not select ‘risky’ candidates such as women or ethnic minorities. In general, ‘winning’ candidates are perceived as local, white, middle class and male: â€Å"perceptions of anticipated electoral gains and losses reflect, and thereby reinforce the dominant class and racial biases within parliament† (Norris and Lovenduski, 1995, p.136). The Elite Theory argument An application of elite theory to liberal democracies at present, confirms the validity of this model. Electoral systems may mean that the voters do not have a genuine choice and that this lies in the hands of the selectorate, usually party officials: â€Å"studies in a number of countries show that in socio- economic terms the differences between successful and unsuccessful candidates are not great and that the selection of candidates is often in the hands of a small group of party leaders and activists† (Rush, 1992, p.66). The Social Contract Revisited Nadezhda Shvedova identifies the difficulties women face in achieving equal representation in government: political, socio-economic, and ideological/psychological obstacles (Karam ed. 1998). Political obstacles include: the type of electoral system ( Shvedova believes proportional representation is better for increasing women’s representation), prevalence of the â€Å"masculine model† of political life e.g. the â€Å"predator mentality† that is supposedly alien to women, and lack of party support. Arguments of socio-economic obstacles usually stem from the theory that higher development brings more democratization; Ideological/psychological obstacles are the traditional social roles assigned to women and men, women’s lack of confidence, the perception of politics as a â€Å"dirty†, and the way in which women are portrayed in the mass media. In newly democratized countries mechanisms such as quotas have been devised to ensure equal representation. Quotas are introduced to make sure that women constitute a certain percentage of the members of a public body such as a candidate list, committee, parliament assembly, or government. They usually aim at achieving at least a â€Å"critical minority† of 30-40% for women (Karam ed. 1998). The three most common forms of these mechanisms are: constitutional quotas which reserve seats in the national parliament for women, election law quotas which are written in national law, and political party quotas which are adopted by political parties to achieve a certain percentage of women as candidates. According to Dahlerup, â€Å"History seems to prove that the implementation of a quota system is made easier in a new political system than in an older one, where most seats might be ‘occupied’, and consequently a conflict may arise between the interests of new groups versus those of the incumbent† (Karam ed. 1998). Countries that have implemented quotas for women are : Uganda, South Africa, Argentina, Brazil, India, Nepal, Bangladesh, Eritrea, Tanzania, Belgium, Italy and Namibia (Karam ed. 1998). An example of a newly democratized state where women played an important role in creating the institutions and the foundations of the state is South Africa. According to Seidman â€Å"During the South African transition women activists played a surprisingly important role in the negotiations, in the elections, and in designing the new state. Women’s participation is already leading to new approaches in policy making and, I will suggest, to the construction of a new vision of gendered citizenship† (Seidman 1999, p. 288). This illustrates the ambiguous relationship between development and democracy, and the relationship between the role played by women in freedom or independence struggles and their subsequent role in the new state. . However, it is more difficult to implement such mechanisms in older democracies where rules of procedure and systems are entrenched. Another reason is that the liberal democratic model creates systems that are less â€Å"gendered† than the participatory democracy model, for example, would. This may not have been done to purposely discriminate against women; it may be more about the general ideology of liberal democracy. A good illustration would be the case of the USA where the founding fathers of the American Constitution aimed at creating a â€Å"free† society. â€Å"Free† however, does not imply equal in resources or in condition. Liberal democracy can be therefore criticized because the state will strive to achieve the equality of disadvantaged people; it is more likely to act as a neutral mediator or even observer in the free, pluralist system, where the strongest group/ elite will prevail. It therefore follows that in such a system, reforms to improve the r epresentation of women in political activity will be piece-meal and gradual. References Corrin, C. (1999). Feminist Perspectives on Politics, Essex, Pearson Prentice Hall. Karam, A. (ed) (1998). Women in Parliament: Beyond Numbers, Stockholm, International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance (IDEA). Waylen, G. (2003), Gender and Transitions: What Do We Know?, Democratisation, 10 (1), p. 157- 178. Waylen, G. (1994), Women and Democratisation: Conceptualising Gender Relations in Transition Politics. World Politics, 46 (3), p. 327- 354. Seidman, G. (1999), Gendered Citizenship: South Africa’s Democratic Transition and the Construction of a Gendered State, Gender and Society, 13 (3), p.287-307. Phillips, A. (1991), Engendering Democracy, Cambridge , Polity. Pateman, C. (1988), The Sexual Contract, Cambridge, Polity. Meny, Y. (2002), De la democratie en Europe: Old Concepts and New Challenges, Journal of Common Market Studies, 41 (1), p. 1-13. Dahl, R. (1989), Democracy and Its Critics, New Haven; London, Yale University Press. Rush, M (1992), Democracy and its Critics, Harvester Wheatsheaf, Prentice Hall. Norris, P. and Lovenduski, J. (1995), Political Recruitment: Gender, Race and Class in the British Parliament, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. 1 Footnotes [1] Adrienne Rich defines patriarchy as â€Å"a familial- social, ideological, political system in which men by force, direct pressure, or through ritual, tradition, law and language, customs, etiquette, education, and the division of labour, determine what part women shall or shall not play† (Corrin 1999, p.8 quoting Rich 1997). [2] Fraternity means â€Å"rule by brothers† and is seen by Feminists such as Pateman as equally discriminative against women as patriarchy [3] Plato and Aristotle had made this distinction in their writings (Phillips, 1991)

Internet - Ethics of Hacking Essays -- Exploratory Essays Research Pap

Privacy Risks of Internet Wiretapping      Ã‚  Ã‚   Abstract: In recent months, the FBI has taken steps to implement an Internet wiretapping scheme called Carnivore.   This paper discusses the possible risks of this system with respect to personal privacy, analyzes the technical flaws of the system that produce these risks, and discusses recent US Legislation to relax the statutory restrictions on its deployment and use.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   On September 11, 2001, a group of terrorists carried out a methodically planned and almost perfectly executed attack on major sites in the United States, toppling two of the nation's highest buildings.   Two days later, on September 13, the US Senate unanimously approved legislation that may serve to topple one of its greatest freedoms: the right to privacy.   This legislation, which its drafters Orrin Hatch (R-UT) and Dianne Feinstein (D-CA) dubbed the "Combating Terrorism Act of 2001," would loosen restrictions on FBI wiretaps, including its nascent "Carnivore" Internet surveillance system [1].   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Carnivore is a system introduced by the FBI to provide it with "a 'surgical' ability to intercept and collect the communications which are the subject of a lawful order while ignoring those communications which [it is] not authorized to intercept" [2].   It works in a manner similar to a network packet sniffer, which intercepts and copies all bits of information that pass through a network.   It differs from a normal packet sniffer, however, in that it is designed to distinguish from the noise those bits of information which apply to a specific court order [2].     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   There is nothing new about the FBI conducting surveillance; what disinguishes Carnivore from past methods of surveillance... ...Answers."   http://www.pbs.org/cringely/pulpit/pulpit20000713.html, 13 July 2000. 4. Wingfield, Nick, et al.   "Earthlink Just Says No to FBI's Carnivore."   http://www.zdnet.com/zdnn/stories/news/0,4586,2603945,00.html, 14 July 2000. 5. http://www.aclu.org/action/carnivore107.html: An "Action Alert" from the American Civil Liberties Union urging people to speak out against Carnivore. 6. http://slashdot.org/comments.pl?sid=6534&cid=933650: A comment from a semi-anonymous reader of the open-source advocacy site Slashdot.org. 7. http://www.senate.gov/legislative/vote1071/vote_00279.html: An official record of the voting that took place on the "Combating Terrorism Act of 2001," legislation that was introduced into the Senate. 8. http://www.fbi.gov/hq/lab/carnivore/letter3.htm: A letter to the Los Angeles Post from John E. Collingwood, an FBI spokesman

Historical and cultural comparisom between Canada and USA Essay

The tourist potential of the climatic, landscape, historical & cultural resources of Canada, & New York (USA) The designations I have chosen are both on the American continent. The statistics used are based on the European traveller. Because of the vast difference in population density of Canada and the U.S.A, I have decide to centre my comparison around the vast metropolis of New York and western Canada (Calgary-lively city lake Louise-scenic resort) Canada is situated in the north of the American continent: it is one of the most visited countries in the world. This means that the number of incoming visitors is immense. Renowned for its stunningly beautiful countryside, Canada mixes the flavour of Europe with the bustle of trendy New York, The Canadian Rocky Mountains and its parks, is a destination of choice for millions of visitors annually. For over 100 years the community of Calgary have enjoyed living among the most beautiful natural surroundings in North America. â€Å"The continents territory is divided between only Canada and USA its population of over 277 million is heavily concentrated in a pocket between the grate lakes and the east coat.† (Burton 1995) As we all know New York is situated to the south of Canada and located on the west coast of the United States. New York is a vibrant, sophisticated, diverse and happening 24-hour city with plenty to see and do day or night The north east roughly revises 40 per cent of the USA population, 37.6 per cent of all domestic tourism is focused on the three states around new York, new jersey and Pennsylvania Known as the â€Å"Big Apple†, featuring the world famous buildings such as The Empire State and Chrysler buildings. New York is oozing with culture; you could easily spend a day strolling through one of its many galleries and gardens or choose from 150 museums including the Museum of Modern Art, The Metropolitan Museum of Art and the American Museum of Natural History all well known across the globe. Canada : The surrounding areas of New York and down town Calgary in Canada are very similar .The major difference is the terrain, because Calgary is the gateway to the eastern rocky mountains, which rear up in a sheer wall of snow-capped peaks seventy kilometres west of the city. Only an hour's drive west along the Trans Canada Highway from the city centre is Banff National Park, the pride of Parks C... ...may come into government governs the country will affect tourism e.g. war. One of the main requirements for all tourist attractions is the customer’s wants and needs. These include accommodation transport, entertainment and facilities. â€Å"New York provides sophistication starting architecture and luxury† (Hoffman, Fainstein 2003) Canada is renowned for its natural beauty winter sports and culture. Both of these Destinations have all the factors necessary to provide tourists with an enjoyable, stimulating yet relaxed experience. Canada is another huge country and has a similar geographical pattern of physical regions and a similar distribution of population as the USA, but it has a very much smaller population of only 26.5 million in 1990 vast areas of Canada are sparsely populated and there are extensive tracts of untouched wilderness with outstanding scenic attraction their summer season is relatively short temperatures reach over 16oc. Canada pattern of domestic tourist movement is broadly similar to that of the USA Canada outbound tourism to the USA is also strongly concentrated in the far east and west, particularly in the states just across the USA boarder e.g. new York

The contribution of infrastructure to Nigeria’s economic development and future prospects

Introduction There is general consensus that there is a positive relationship between development in the financial sector and economic growth providing the means to mobilize and to allocate funds in the economy (Masha et al., 2004; Shaw, 1973). However, financial development is also shown to be inadequate to cause economic development often being considered to be a passive handmaiden serving to enhance the output and contribution of the real sector (production) (Firzli and Bazi, 2011; Olaseni and Alade, 2012). There is therefore need for enhanced focus on the growth of the real sector, which in most cases is private sector driven and includes economic activities of a country’s citizenry. Herein lay the import of infrastructure development and the need for its aligned pursuit with financial sector development for enhanced national economic development. This research assesses the potential for utilizing infrastructure investment to enhance economic development in Nigeria, seeking to show nee d for enhanced focus on infrastructure investments to achieve the country’s desired economic growth and a positive future prospects. Aim of research This research proposes that there is significant potential for utilization of infrastructure investment to achieve enhance economic development of Nigeria. Through the assessment of this potential and analysis of government efforts towards managing infrastructure inadequacies, this research endeavours to answer the question: What is the potential for utilizing infrastructure investment to enhance economic development in NigeriaIt seeks to show that infrastructure investments are justifiable in the quest for economic growth and robust future economic development prospects for Nigeria. Research Objectives With regard to its overarching theme, this research aims to achieve the following objectives: To assess the correlation between infrastructure development and economic growth To assess infrastructure inadequacies in Nigeria impeding the country’s economic growth and what measures are being taken to address them. To evaluate impact of infrastructure development past and present on Nigeria’s future prospects and economic outlook. Structure of proposal Following is a review of literature which lays the foundation for the subject under study. It is followed by the research Methodology outlining techniques and approaches employed in the conduct of study. Literature review There is general consensus that there is a positive relationship between development in the financial sector and economic growth. While acknowledging that financial institutions provide the means to mobilize and allocate funds in the economy hence enhancing development, Schumpeter, in his 1934 work, did not perceive financial sector development as being the cause of economic development. Later in 1954, Robinson supports this view arguing that the financial sector is a handmaiden of economic development, which is passive and responds to needs in the real sector (which encompasses economic production including manufacturing) and therefore growth in the real economy (Masha et al, 2004). However, McKinnon (1973) and Shaw (1973) argue that the financial sector can be more than a passive handmaiden and a major driver of economic growth if it is relieved of its restraints. With repression, they argue that the financial sector responds passively to the needs in the real-sector and can only d rive economic development if liberalized. It is settled for most research work that there is a definite link, between growth in the financial sector and in the real sector (economic production). In an article in 2005, Asagowa identified close to ten indices of growth and deepening of the financial sector. These include rate of growth of all-encompassing money relative to GDP (diversification of the economy), interest rates spread, and ratio of financial assets to GDP, among others (Babatunde, et al, 2012). Infrastructure is a significant contributor to growth in sectors of the economy such as manufacturing and other forms of production easing and facilitating essential constituent processes. Financial sector reforms and economic development Up until the fourth quarter of 1986, Nigeria pursued a government-led economic development paradigm guided by National Development Plans. The government dominated all sectors of the economy including agriculture, commerce, services (especially transportation), and industry, among others, with the private sector playing a passive role. Since its independence in 1960 and subsequent discovery and exploitation of oil through the 1970s, the government had sufficient resources to finance these development plans to a reasonable proportion (World Bank, 2010). However, poor fiscal discipline consequent to the revenue windfalls deriving from oil saddled the nation with a significant external debt burden. The disregard of other sectors of the economy led to a fall in international trade, and as well resulted in high unemployment rates and slow growth of output. These led the government to rethink its underlying philosophy of development resulting in a shift in paradigm to a private sector-led p aradigm. With this shift came relief of stringent regulations governing every sector which were put up to enhance government control but which impeded the enhancement of performance and growth (Akinyosoye, 2010). In 1984, therefore, a programme was fashioned called the Structural Adjustment Programme (SAP) which attempted to move the country away from direct government control of economic activities to indirect control such as through market forces. This involved widespread deregulation of trade, exchange, finance, among others. However, in spite of the increase in the number of financial institutions and greater variety of financial instruments and freedoms, the real economy showed no marked improvement with all macroeconomic indicators declining three years into the new millennium (World Bank, 2013). The country suffered debilitating external debt, high inflation (highest at 72.8% in 1995) (FMW, 2012: NNBS, 2013), high level of fiscal debt, underemployment and low capacity utiliza tion in industry and agriculture. There was general distress also in the financial sector with high levels of insolvency and non-performing loans (Firzli and Bazi, 2011). Financial reforms have not been entirely successful translating into economic growth to desired levels. In this regard, there is need for aligned pursuit of growth in the financial sector with that in the real sector, which is facilitated by infrastructure development. Herein lay the import of infrastructure development. Infrastructure and economic development Infrastructure is herein defined to include the sectors of transport, water and sanitation, telecommunications, power, among others. In all countries across the globe, this aspect represents a large portfolio of expenditure, ranging from a third to a half of public investment (Akinyosoye, 2010). Given the intense capital requirement and the length of time it takes for benefits to manifest, there has been concern and debate among economic policy makers, politicians and the general public regarding the performance of infrastructure and its impact on economic development (Patunola-Ajayi, 2013). However, AEO (2013) and WEF (2010) among others present a widespread agreement that the inadequacy of physical infrastructure in a country is among major constraints impeding sustained and broad-based economic development. There are various correlations between infrastructure and economic activity. In the short term, the construction phase is associated with attendant decision in the public secto r that could have an influence on macroeconomic variables such as GDP, employment, public deficit, inflation, among others. The public investment thus expands aggregate demand, yielding a boost to employment, production and income (Patunola-Ajayi, 2013). In the medium and long term (the utilization phase), there are macroeconomic effects such as increases in productivity over the territory and in the private sector, as well as its effect on the degree of competitiveness of an economy (ADB, 2012; Foster and Briceno-Garmendia, 2010). Additionally, various benefits derive from infrastructure development. The availability of infrastructure influences the marginal productivity of private capital with investment of public capital in infrastructure in a particular location often attracting additional flow of resources (Akinyosoye, 2010; ADB, 2012). Infrastructure services such as transportation, electricity, and water are also intermediate inputs to production. Public capital invested in i nfrastructure therefore complements private capital and serves to enhance economic development (ADB, 2012; World Bank, 2010). Services thereby generated as a result of sufficiency of infrastructure translate into increased aggregate output. At the microeconomic level, the effect of infrastructure is specifically seen through the reduction in the cost of production derived from its impact on profitability, output levels, employment and incomes (Myers, 2007). This is particularly the case for small and medium scale enterprises. Extensive and efficient infrastructure is critical in ensuring effective functioning of the economy and is an important factor in the determination of the location of economic activity and the kind of sectors and/or economic activities that can develop in a particular economy (Patunola-Ajayi, 2013). There is also the intermediate input for economic development which encompasses higher productivity obtained from improved human capacity development. This can be a ttained through improvements in healthcare, nutrition, education, better roads and transportation, and access to electricity to households as well as telecommunication services which enable the creative engagement of citizens and access to core economic activities (Wilhelm, 2010; Akinyosoye, 2010). On a global scale, and regarding international trade (trade logistics), there is also an impact on the cost and quality of service which determine competitiveness in export and import markets. Infrastructure reduces the effect of distance between regions, enables the integration of national markets, and creates connections at lower cost to markets in other regions or countries (WEF, 2010; ADB, 2012; KPMG, 2012). A remarkable positive effect of infrastructure development has been adduced by models such as the Cobb-Douglas which yield a median value of 0.30. This means that public investment equivalent to 100% of the public capital stock would lead to a 300% growth of private production (Ba batunde, et al, 2012). Investment in infrastructure is therefore among the important mechanisms through which to increase income, employment, productivity, and consequently, the competitiveness of the economy. Infrastructure development in Nigeria Nigeria’s economic growth is largely driven by the capital-intensive oil sector which continues to drive the economy. The average growth of this sector was about 8% comparable to -0.35% for the non-oil sectors (NNBS, 2013). Given its limited job creation capacity, focus on this sector has not translated into sufficient jobs resulting in poverty and disenfranchisement of the greater population and, therefore, the country’s low rank in the Human Development Index (HDI) (NNBS, 2013; The Guardian, 2012). In this regard, King, 2003; FMW, 2012 and AEO, 2013; show that economic growth has not translated into sufficient job creation and/or poverty alleviation with unemployment increasing from 21% in 2010 to 24% in 2011 (King, 2003; NNBS, 2013). The country’s outlook for growth remains positive, though, with an annual economic growth rate of about 8% (KPMG, 2011; NNBS, 2013), and an anticipated GDP growth rate of about 12% in the next five years (NNBS, 2013; AEO, 2013). T his outlook pegs its vision 20:2020’s aspiration to achieve a GDP of $900 billion (FMW, 2012; NNBS, 2013) predicated on improved sectoral performance, the propulsion of a better business environment, and supportive government policies focused on stability in the macroeconomic environment and increased investment. This is however challenged by short and medium term downside risks which include security challenges due to religious conflict in some of its states, slowed global economic growth in major economies of the world and the crisis of the Eurozone (Olaseni and Alade, 2012). There is therefore a great need to diversify the Nigerian economy making it broad-based (both socially and geographically) and to expand the sources of growth. The development of agriculture, manufacturing and services could enable the broadening of growth, creation of employment and reduction of poverty (AEO, 2013). The country is therefore addressing the infrastructure deficit in the country to creat e linkages and to enable such diversification which would enable inclusive growth (FMW, 2012). Infrastructure made a one percentage point net contribution to the country’s improved per capita growth performance in recent years (NNBS, 2013), notably held back by unreliable power supply (Olaseni and Alade, 2012). In spite of the obvious importance of infrastructure to the nation, governments both at the national and local levels have continued to pay lip service to the provision of infrastructure (Financial News, 2014). As a consequence, the country’s growth prospect is undermined. The following section offers a glimpse at some of the country’s major infrastructure inadequacies. Inadequacies in infrastructure developmentUrban housingLack of proper planning and management of rapid urbanization has led to uncontrolled growth in major cities and towns to accommodate an informal economy which stands at 60-70%. This has had a negative impact on the landscapes of urban centres, leading to decay of inner cities, growth of shanty towns especially in peri-urban areas, consequently limiting their contribution to the national economy being inimical to security and good governance (UN Habitat, 2010).TransportThroughout the country, roads are neglected, particularly those connecting major cities, the sea port and commercial centres to the hinterland which are bad and deteriorating. Efforts at repair are often in vain due to the use of substandard materials. Though having the potential to provide a cheaper means of transport, the existing rail network is old and dilapidated, having served half a century after being built by the British colonial government (ADB, 2012). Att empts to procure new coaches or to create new routes have not succeeded. This has fostered the development of a disorganized and unregulated private sector freight and passenger road transport system, which has resulted in traffic congestion in cities, increase in motor accidents, and environmental pollution (UN Habitat, 2010). Given Nigeria’s endowment of waterways and long stretches of coast with potential for transportation, this option, which could ease congestion on roads and aid easier movements, is neglected and the water ways are left undeveloped. There are only a few canoe and ferry routes which are ill-equipped having no good jetties, harbours, safer boats or ferries. The recently refurbished mini-port at Ikorodu, Lagos State provides relief to commuters going through the Ikorodu-Lagos-Lekki road where they now only cross by ferry to Ajah (Akinyosoye, 2010). This is evidence of potential and should be replicated across the country. Transportation of heavy cargo thro ugh waterways can save pressure on roads. There have been recent attempts to improve/ renovate airports which have for a long time remained in deplorable condition, and to address the challenge of adequate capacity. Travelling by air is still expensive in Nigeria compared to international standards with charter options such as helicopter, cargo and passenger planes largely untapped. Air transport has the exceptional advantage in terms of speed, time of travel and distance considerations. It is also of high value in relation to weight and is preferred when accessibility is a challenge (Akinyosoye, 2010).Electricity supplyThough it forms a significant avenue for economic empowerment of the people and country as a whole, the power crisis in Nigeria persists. Irregular supply impedes production and manufacturing and consequently some entities have had to relocate leading to loss of employment opportunities (UN Habitat, 2010). The country currently generates 4000MW which is inadequate co mpared to South Africa’s 34000MW (Olaseni and Alade, 2012). There are however efforts and resources being planned in the medium term towards enhancement of power supply but quite a lot needs to be done given the importance of power in economic development and well-being of citizens who make use of generators for their power requirements (Olaseni and Alade, 2012).Water supply infrastructurePopulation pressure has strained water supply capacity with damaged supply pipes, deteriorating water treatment infrastructure and erratic power supply challenging the supply of safe water to the population. To many, the main sources of water are boreholes, wells, springs, flowing rivers, and brooks whose safety for human consumption is not guaranteed. Poor sanitation and consequent diseases impacts overall health and well-being of citizens and their productivity (UN Habitat, 2010).CommunicationThe emergence of cellular phones has revolutionized the public and private business environment, b ridging communication gaps that hitherto existed. There has subsequently been a reduction in unproductive business trips and an enhancement of transactions. High prices of service and poor reception, inadequate capacity and coverage however need to be addressed for this aspect to facilitate expected economic growth (Financial News, 2014). There is obviously greater need for the Nigerian government and constituent states to develop adequate and effective infrastructure. This requires a more strategic approach to tackle its dearth which has been deemed to constrain the required economic development. There needs to be robust strategic planning, strong political will, as well as the right procurement approach to achieve long term success (Akinyosoye, 2010; AEO, 2013). According to World Bank (2013) estimates, Nigeria’s vision and aspiration to attain middle income status by 2020 requires sustained investment in infrastructure of about $14.2 billion over the next decade which is a bout 12% of its GDP. The current investment is $5.9 billion (5% of GDP) (NNBS, 2013) falls short. Expenditure on food imports is a significant at $90 billion a year (NNBS, 2013; World Bank, 2013) and is unnecessary given Nigeria’s potential in agriculture, taking up resources that could finance infrastructure development (World Bank, 2013). Reducing this bill requires investment in enabling infrastructure such as rural energy, transport systems, telecommunication and irrigation systems. However, much of Nigeria’s impetus for rural development will derive from investments at the level of the State though such infrastructure run by the State and government is prone to low maintenance and support, hindering efficiency and effectiveness (Olaseni and Alade, 2012). Current development of public infrastructure is occurring in tandem with a huge expansion of private sector developments, particularly in the property market (ADB, 2012). Continued urbanization and an emerging mid dle class, as well as a shortfall in quality office space for investor companies are key drivers for this wave of real estate development (KPMG, 2011; FMW, 2012). The success of ambitious infrastructure developments is likely to increase investors’ appetite to expand their operations and capture the anticipated growth, portends significant potential for economic growth (AEO, 2013). MethodologyResearch PhilosophyThis study employs a pragmatic philosophy which embraces both positivism in its opening up and confirming valid causal relationships which can therefore be used for prediction; and subjectivism which appreciates the difference between humans as social actors, with varied views of reality, values and knowledge (Creswell, 2002). Focus in this regard is on observable phenomena and their subjective meanings driving applied research integrating different perspectives to help in the interpretation of data.Study Technique and StrategyGiven the contextual nature of the study and its focus being an attempt to gauge the impact of infrastructure development on Nigeria’s economy, a qualitative inductive approach is deemed to be a suitable approach enabling a detailed exploration of the subject (Quirke, B., 2008). The inductive approach is useful in condensing varied and extensive data into a brief and summarized format while establishing links between researc h objectives and findings obtained (Saunders et al., 2000). This technique involves the exploration of published literature on the subject including government reports, working papers, as well as journals and other relevant literature. This research also employs a quantitative technique in the conduct of interviews in a social survey to targeted experts in Nigeria’s development ministry as well as government leaders in sample states. This would enable the acquisition of information on actual infrastructure investment and development, cross-checked to the particular region by local officials towards the realization of study objectives. This would also enable the acquisition of opinions and information on the actual contribution of infrastructure to increased economic activity in the various regions, and/or the enhancement of life which is a precursor to increased productivity.Practical ImplementationThe targeted experts chosen for the survey include random sample of 20 officia ls in the national Federal Government in charge of oversight of infrastructure development in the country’s 36 Federal States and the administrative areas of the Federal Capital territory and urban councils. This will enable the attainment of a comprehensive view of projects and prospects given that they comprise the control centre for the entire nation, and arebetter placed to notice and to identify increases in economic activity reflected in increase in revenues to Local government areas and urban councils, and tax revenues to the nation state. This survey will take the form of a structured interview administered by the researcher, a method which ensures consistency of results obtained and answers that can reliably be aggregated. Its format is as appears in Appendix: A comprising both closed- and open-ended questions which afford the research the capability to compare and/or contrast interviewee responses in order to answer the research question (Creswell, 2002).Analysis ap proachData obtained from interviews will be analysed using SPSS which enables the production of graphs which would enable the study to show correlations between infrastructure development and increase in economic activity (growth in the real sector) which enables evaluation of its actual or potential impact. A wide and extensive exploration of literature, as well as congruence on the ground as assessed by target experts enhances reliability and validity of data obtained (Creswell, 2002). The choice of a representative sample from across the entire country enhances the study’s generalizability and thereofore its capacity to make comprehensive deductions on the subject (Creswell, 2002; Saunders et al., 2000). Findings showing an increase in economic activities in areas recently served by new or improved infrastructure; entry of medium and large scale investors to locations supported by actual or prospective infrastructure investments; as well as increases in local and federal g overnment revenues signify the contribution of infrastructure investments in increased economic activity engaging the population in the regions and overall expansion in the real sector. These are expected to translate to economic growth and positive future prospects for economic development.Limitations of studyAssessment of the impact and actual correlation of infrastructure development on economic growth might be a challenge given the length of time with which the utilization of infrastructure translates into tangible economic activity and causes observable effect on the country’s economy. Economic growth of a country depends on the interplay of several factors including financial deepening, investor confidence, the encouragement of various economic activities, among other socio-cultural and policy factors. The isolation of the contribution of infrastructure development is therefore a challenge and might affect the outcome of this research.Ethical ConsiderationsIt is imperat ive in research to ensure that the survey approach and activities do not portend psychological or social harm to interviewees. An initial important and significant step is in ensuring that the researcher seeks informed consent from the particular interviewees and as well from their superiors in departments or other actors whose areas of duty and responsibility may be touched by the inquiry. This would ensure that there are no breaches in confidentiality, and also ensures that interviewees are not put in tight spots and forced to discuss sensitive areas and information which may be of psychological harm. The researcher should also be keen to note potential language barriers and cultural practices such as cultural gender power disparities that may impede the smooth progress of the interview and which may also negatively impact the interviewees making them feel incompetent or hindered in their participation. In such cases, the researcher should seek support of interpreters and agreeabl e individuals to help out in the conduct of the interview enhancing comfort and therefore output. Alongside the above considerations, it is also worthwhile to ensure that time set aside for interviews and other activities such as prior meetings is properly consented to both by management or superiors in the relevant departments in which the interviewers are, as well as by the interviewees themselves. This would ensure that the interviews and related activities do not infringe on official or personal schedules, as well as personal, cultural or religious preferences or obligations. The interviewee should also be informed of their right to answer a particular question or to terminate the interview altogether. The researcher in this study therefore in the foregoing will endeavour to obtain proper consent for study survey; respect privacy and goodwill of participants by not asking hypersensitive or confidential information; respect cultural norms and individual preferences of interviewee s; ensure the confidentiality of data collected protecting it from access by third parties, and, to honestly and accurately report information obtained from the survey, avoiding the identification of interviewees if they wish that their identity be waived. Conclusion Reform in Nigeria’s financial sector is inadequate for economic development if the economy is not diversified and if citizens are not engaged in worthwhile economic activity. For the government to achieve this shift there needs to be a focus on infrastructure development, which would encourage private investments, enhance well-being of citizens, reduce existing constraints, and overall increase in economic activity which contribute to economic growth. Further research is required to clearly show correlations between investment in infrastructure and economic growth and future economic prospects. This would enable its effects to be isolated from among other factors such as financial deepening which are also essential for economic growth and development. References African Development Bank, 2012. An Infrastructure Action Plan for Nigeria: Closing the Infrastructure Gap and Accelerating Economic Transformation. ADB Group report Africa Economic Outlook, 2013. Nigeria Economic Outlook. AEO Report Akinyosoye, M., 2010. Infrastructure Development in Nigeria: Roadmap to Sustainable Development. Working Paper Babatunde, O., S., Afees, and O., Olasunkanmi, 2012. â€Å"Infrastructure and economic growth in Nigeria: A multivariate Approach.† In: Journal of Business Management and Accounting Vol. 1(3), pp. 030-039, October 2012 Business Newspaper, 2011. PPP as a tool for Infrastructure Development in Nigeria. 20th October; by Dominic Obuzuwa Creswell, J., 2002. Educational research: Planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education. Federal Ministry of Works, 2012. Road infrastructure and related development in Nigeria: Compendium report. Viewed from: www.works.gov.ng Financial New s, 2014. Nigeria takes step to develop Infrastructure. Article by Sarah Krouse Firzli, M., and V., Bazi, 2011. â€Å"Infrastructure Investments in an Age of Austerity: The Pension and Sovereign Funds Perspective.† In: Revue Analyse Financiere, volume 41, pp. 34-37. Foster, V., and C., Briceno-Garmendia, 2010. Africa’s Infrastructure: A time for Transformation. Washington, D.C.: The World Bank. King, D., 2003. USAID/Nigeria Economic Growth Activities Assessment. Arlington VA: IBM Business Consulting Services KPMG, 2011. Trends in Global Real Estate: Global Issues and Insights. Viewed from: http://www.kpmg.com/Global/IssuesAndInsights/ArticlesAndPublications/Pages/Trends-global real estate.aspx Masha, et al, 2004. â€Å"Theoretical Issues in Financial Intermediating Financial Markets, Macro-economic Management and Monetary Policy.† In: Financial Markets in Nigeria, CBN, Abuja. McKinnon, R., 1973. Money and Capital in Economic Development. Washington, D.C.: The Bro okings Institution Myers, D., 2007. Construction Economics. Wiltshire, Great Britain: Cromwell Press Nigerian National Bureau of Statistics, 2013. Viewed from: http://www.nigerianstat.gov.ng/ Olaseni, M., and W., Alade, 2012. â€Å"Vision 20:2020 and the Challenges of Infrastructure Development in Nigeria.† In: Journal of Sustainable Development Vol.5, No 2(2012) Patunola-Ajayi, B., 2013. Infrastructure Development and Economic Empowerment in Nigeria. The Nigeria Institution of Estate Surveyors and Valuers. NIESV Quirke, B., 2008. Making the connections: Using qualitative research to make research work, 2nd ed., Hampshire: Gower Publishing Ltd. Saunders, M., P., Lewis, and A., Thornhill, 2000. Research Methods for Business Students, 2nd edition, London: Pitman Publishing Shaw, E., 1973. Financial Deepening In Economic Development. New York. Oxford University press The Guardian, 2012. Roads and Rail in Nigeria could be at the centre of Job creation. January 24 UN Habitat, 2010 . Nigeria: Country Programme Document (2008-2009). United Nations Human Settlements Programme Wilhelm, T., 2010. EDC Nigeria Economics [online]. Viewed from: http://www.edc.ca/english/docs/gnigeria_e.pdf World Bank, 2010. Infrastructure at the crossroads: lessons from 20 years of World Bank experience. Washington DC: The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / the World Bank World Bank, 2013. The World Bank Economic Report for Nigeria. WB World Economic Forum, 2010. The Global Competitiveness Report 2010–2011. Geneva: World Economic Forum

Christian Perspective on Counseling Essay

This is a personal theory paper which focuses on the Christian perspective; it involves the integration of faith and scripture into the personal counseling process. It discusses personality structures, individual differences and the motivations that guide and push the human person. Included is a contextual definition of health and the factors that cause illness. They are understood by using psychological techniques in concurrence with Biblical truths. Employing a theological worldview for counseling helps a therapist’s awareness of the innermost complexities of a client and enables them to be an effective guide towards the path of hope and healing. Introduction Counseling is centrally and critically a relationship between people who care (Crabb, 1977). It is essential that a psychotherapist develop a genuine desire for the well-being of a client. This is an ideal arrangement for which a Christian counselor can flourish, because â€Å"Every Christian is called to a ministry of encouraging and helping others (Crabb, 1977)†. Although an atmosphere of caring and encouragement is not limited to Christians it is ideal to integrate psychology and Christian spirituality to most effectively aid clients. Personality Personality structure and components There are many theories involving the structure of the human personality. One is the theory presented by Dr. Ron E. Hawkins (2006a). In this theory, Dr. Hawkins likens each individual to many concentric circles. Every circle is affected by the other circles but every one has its own distinctive characteristics. This structure can best elucidate the complexities that exist inside an individual. The boundaries between circles can help determine the source of each dilemma and each circle provides a different approach to problem-solving. The first circle is the innermost circle of a person and encapsulates the very essence of being human. It is in this most personal circle that the Holy Spirit inhabits within each believer, as supported by the biblical quote â€Å"The kingdom of God is within you† (Luke 17:21). Also included in this circle are the options of free-will and the concept of original sin. The original sin is common to all human beings as maintained by Paul when he writes his letter to the Romans and utters, â€Å"for all have sinned and fall short of the glory of God† (Romans 3:23). It must be noted that outside of issues involving deliverance, there is not much that can be dealt with in this circle by human intervention. Instead, if a problem really reverberates from this circle it must be surrendered in strong faith to the hands of God. The next circle encloses the soul, feeling, and cognitive aspects of the human being. For most clients looking for counseling, this is the circle that receives the most focus. It is in this circle that emotional and psychological troubles not originating from biological sources resonate. The next circle in this theory of personality makeup is the biological circle. This circle consists of the biological processes and focuses on the wellness of the physical human body. Problems in this circle include chemical imbalance which is the failure to normalize the chemicals in the brain, resulting in problems like obsession, anxiety, panic attacks, paranoia, and insomnia. Problems in this circle are more likely to have physical sources, like physical trauma or abuse. The next circle is another prevailing source of problems dealt with in counseling. The temporal circle, it is the beginning of external focused aspects. In this circle, external environmental structures like society and culture have a significant influence on the individual. Societal values and cultural expectations will always have an impact on personality development. Society, friends, family, and church are examples of the temporal systems that must be dealt with when counseling people. Learning who the client is responsible to and what he is responsible for is essential to developing personal responsibility (Cloud & Townsend, 1992). Additionally, the influences of the client’s family system are dealt with in this circle. The Bible supports this, â€Å"fathers, do not exasperate your children; instead bring them up in the training and instruction of the Lord† (Ephesians 6:4). Many problems can be rooted from the effects of family and environment The final circle of the human personality structure is the circle of the supernatural. This includes the archetypal epic struggle between good and evil, demons and angels. Despite this concept it is important to keep in mind that â€Å"our struggle is not against flesh and blood, but against the rulers, against the authorities, against the powers of this dark world and against the spiritual forces of evil in the heavenly realms† (Ephesians 6:12). The Bible states that demonic power is a real and it would be imprudent to disregard its potential. Spiritual forces have a great impact on personality development and it cannot be excluded from the growth process Motivation There are five basic propositions about motivation: [1] human beings are all motivated to seek our needs, [2] motivational energy is channeled through the mind and results in specific behavior, [3] motivated behavior is always directed towards a goal, [4] when a goal is perceived to be impossible a state of disequilibrium exists, and finally, [5] all behavior is motivated and all behavior makes sense (Crabb, 1986). Motivation is a drive toward security and significance, with these thoughts in mind, Dr. Crabb details that the definitive goal of counseling is to â€Å"free people to better worship and serve God by helping them become more like the Lord† (1977). Individual differences In counseling, the level of maturity of each client must be assessed. Individuals are in the process of ‘moving over’ and ‘moving up’, clients differ in as to where they are in the process of dealing with presenting problems in a manner consistent with scripture and developing a Christ-like character (Crabb, 1977). Perhaps the most important reason that accounts for individual differences is that God provided free will to His creation. This free will makes each person unique and not merely a puppet with predetermined actions. Alteration of procedure used in counseling is necessary when dealing with different types of people. Some clients should be approached in a feeling level while others should be led spiritually. Cognitive based personalities are best dealt with on the thinking level and those suffering from physical disabilities are helped first with their tangible needs (Hawkins, 2006). Health A contextual explanation of health All counselors should want their clients to become healthy. According to McMinn (1996), the three factors that determine health are: accurate awareness of self, accurate awareness of needs and involvement in healthy relationships. Basing self-worth on the word of God is an effective strategy; to be able to create a self-image based on the unconditional love of Christ is a helpful direction for people who are injured in the different psychological aspects of their lives. McGee (1992) states, â€Å"changing our beliefs from false beliefs to the truths of God’s Word will assist us in experiencing more appropriate emotions and thereby will change the way we respond†. Helping clients to become more Christ-like in seeking self-worth and happiness is the goal of Christian counseling. A contextual explanation of illness The sources of illness are biological, cognitive, emotional and spiritual. Biological are often the easiest to identify they have physical signs that can be studied. Biological illnesses include physical sickness, chemical imbalances, and traumatic abuse. Typically, biological problems can be treated with medications or removal of the source of problem. For instance, physical trauma caused by an abusive husband involves treatment wherein the first step is to remove the victim from the abusive relationship. The cognitive aspect is the area of focus for most counseling therapies. Many problems that counselors must contend with relate to cognitive disorders, including depression, anxiety, guilt, and fear. The illnesses with a cognitive source are of critical concern as they are often more difficult to treat than biological illnesses. Emotional causes must also be considered. Sandra Wilson’s (2001) mantra of Hurt People Hurt People explains how emotional damage begets more emotional damage. Out of wounded emotions, people repeat the same torture to those they are closest to. Finally, illnesses can also be of a spiritual character. In order to be successful and productive counselors â€Å"we have to learn to distinguish between organic or psychological mental illness and a spiritual battle for the mind,† (Anderson, 2000). Spiritual illnesses stem from sin, a lack of faith, and destructive influences. Anderson (2000) advises, â€Å"Don’t think Satan is no longer interested in manipulating your mind in order to accomplish his purposes. Satan’s perpetual aim is to infiltrate your thoughts with his thoughts and to promote his lie in the face of God’s truth. He knows that if he can control you thoughts, he can control your life† Therapeutic Involvement Techniques, methods The Bible provides excellent guidance in various aspects of life; it is an excellent source for every Christian counselor. Accordingly, â€Å"all Scripture is God-breathed and is useful for teaching, rebuking, correcting and training in righteousness† (2 Timothy 3:16-17). In a helping relationship, techniques are used to help the client reach the point of change. One approach that Christian counselors should not be without is prayer. Craigie and Tan (as cited in McMinn, 1996) write, â€Å"Indeed, praying with clients that they may be liberated from resistant misbeliefs, that they may be empowered to do the truth, and that they may come into a deeper relationship with the truth can sometimes be a most powerful experience†. The use of scripture in therapy sessions is useful in integrating God’s Truths to a client’s mindset. The use of the technique miracle question is helpful; this is a method of questioning which begins by helping the client imagine a situation wherein, overnight, a miracle happens that solves all their familial problems. The client has to define what differences they would observe to prove that a miracle had taken place. This is vital in making the client realize how vastly improved their relationships will be when the problems are resolved and defines the goal they aim to achieve. The method of Scaling questions is another tool used to rate the client’s current state, with zero/one being the most ideal and ten being the worst, this facilitates the therapist in identifying factors that prevents them from moving up the scale and recognizes what pushes them down. This is helpful in shifting the client’s focus from problems to solutions. The goal of therapy is promoting a high level of self-worth; the therapist must introduce genuineness into the environment by omitting shame from the process. This can be supplemented with compliments and positive encouragement by vocalizing admirable traits; it is a helpful exercise that generates an atmosphere of goodwill more conducive to problem solving. Hawkins (2006b) identifies the first in counseling step as own having an understanding of the real problem. Then, he goes on to reality testing. From there, a plan of action is formulated and the client is occupied with taking tenure to this plan of action and accepting accountability for its conclusion. Lastly, the counselor helps in building support and responsibility into the process of transformation concerning the client. A good cognitive counseling approach is to focus on the inner-voice and truth. The inner-voice is often constructed as a direct result of the temporal and supernatural circles in which an individual develops. In destructive or less-than-ideal relationships, the individual can develop spiteful and untruthful concepts about themselves which are constantly conveyed by the inner-voice. An understanding of truthful reality, often combating the untrue inner-voice, is critical for change. As Dr. Backus and Dr. Chapian explain, â€Å"locating and identifying pain-causing fabrications plus learning the factual reality-based truth† is therapeutic and critical for healing (2000). Expectations in success Counselors can measure success of counseling by evaluating the client’s progress in the accurate awareness of self or needs and by determining if they are participating in healing relationships (McMinn, 1996). McMinn’s affirms that, â€Å"A more careful look suggests that spiritual and psychological health require a confident sense of self, an awareness of human need, and limitations, and confiding interpersonal relationships with God and others† (1996). Real success in psychotherapy is measured by advancement not perfection. Worldview Dimensions Every individual possesses a worldview whether or not they recognize it. For example, the temporal system an individual develops in will have significant impacts on the individual’s worldview. Someone who was raised in a war torn environment with rampant violence and lawlessness will have a different set of moral code than a person is raised in a secure and peaceable community. These worldviews affect the progress in counseling; worldviews differ from person to person and may include science, perception or the Bible. It is imperative for the Christian counselor to have a broad perception of what his/her worldview consists of. The Biblical worldview filters pertinent information through the sieve of God’s Word. Since all issues are not addressed in Scripture, to sift means to see if the issue lines up with God’s Word (Collins, 2001). Uniting psychology, spirituality, and theology encompasses all the components of human behavior necessary to assess functioning (McMinn, 1996). Conclusion The integration of spirituality and theological scriptures to counseling provides a panoramic view of how psychotherapy can progress. The Bible must be used as a reference in choosing ideologies, techniques or processes to integrate in a personal theory. The use of solutions-based therapy, also referred to as ‘solution focused therapy’ or ‘brief therapy’, is a type of talking therapy that is based upon social constructionist philosophy. It includes miracle and scaling questions. It focuses on what clients want to achieve through therapy. The approach focuses on the present and hopes for future, because as Dr. Worthington explains, â€Å"hope provides the motivation to work† (1999). Cognitive therapy can be used most effectively in Christian counseling because the cognitive approach is imperative in changing the client’s self-awareness by challenging negative thoughts and untruths. Cognitive therapy helps unchain the client from unrealistic expectations by perceiving and revising the pointless difficulties they place on themselves. Understanding the components of human personality through the theory of concentric circles is important in developing a complete strategy for helping individuals change. Recognition of an integrated model that considers the scripture of Christian teachings is a potent tool in wrestling against the dysfunction residing in a client’s life. Resources Anderson, N. (2000). The bondage breaker. Eugene, OR: Harvest House Publishers. Backus, William and Chapian, Marie. (2000). Telling yourself the truth. Bloomington, MN: Bethany House Publishers Cloud, H. & Townsend, J. (1992). Boundaries: When to say yes when to say no to take control of your life. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan. Collins, G. (2001). The Biblical basis of Christian counseling for people helpers. Colorado Springs, CO: NavPress Publishing Group. Crabb, Larry. (1977). Effective biblical counseling: A model for helping caring Christians become capable counselors. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan. Hawkins, Ron E. (Speaker). (2006). Model for guiding the counseling process. Lynchburg, VA: Liberty University. Hawkins, R. E. (Producer). (2006b). Grid for tracking process [Motion picture]. (Available from Liberty university, 1971 University Boulevard, Lynchburg, VA 24502) Worthington, Everett L. (1999). Hope-focussed marriage counseling. Downer’s Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press Greece. McGee, R. (1992). Search for significance: Build your self worth on the forgiveness and unconditional love of Jesus Christ. Nashville, TN: LifeWay Press. McMinn, M. (1996). Psychology, theology and spirituality in Christian counseling. Wheaton, IL: Tyndale House Publishers, Inc. Wilson, S. (2001). Hurt people hurt people: Hope and healing for yourself and your relationships. Grand Rapids, MI: Discovery House Publishers.

Silk Road

The Silk Road was a trade network the connected the East to the West on the Eurasian continent. This trade included both overland and maritime routes. The central Asian kingdoms and peoples became the nexus point for much of this trade which lasted from the 3rd century B. C. E. to the 15th century C. E. Many products and other cultural expressions moved along the Silk Road and diffused among various kingdoms along it. In breaking down and separating the patterns of interaction that occurred along the Silk Road from 200 B. C. E. to 1450 C. E. one can conclude that changes and continuities in these interactions included products traded (changes in specific products and impact, continuity in luxury goods), cultural expressions and diffusion (changes in artistic expressions and societal impacts, continuity in diffusion), and religion (changes in the religions that traveled and impact, continuity in spread of religion along the trade route ). One of the patterns of interaction along the S ilk Road was in the products that were traded. The Silk Road trade system was created by interactions between Han China in the 2nd century B. C. E. nd their western neighbors when an expedition for alliances to deal with a pesky neighbor turned into something else. The first product traded for on the Silk Road were Ferghana horses that the Chinese leader of the expedition Zhang Qian brought back with him which stimulated a trade between the Han and Central Asia for these fine war horses . In return, Central Asian kingdoms began to see various Chinese goods such as silk but also jades, medicinal herb, bronze and other luxury goods. This trade continued throughout the first four centuries of the timeframe with more groups getting involved in the lucrative trade. Indian spices and cotton, European gold and silver, and Central Asian horses and camels all started being acquired by each other . With the fall of both the Han and Roman empires by the 476 CE, the trade declined due to less demand and merchant’s fear of trading on less protected routes . The rise of the Tang Empire in the 7th century C. E. , along with a stabilized Byzantine empire in the West, led to a renewed vigor as well as the Abbasid caliphate in the Middle East led to stabilized trade routes again . From the East, paper and porcelain begin to appear. The stirrup appears out of the Middle East and influences both Europe and China. In Europe it creates the medieval feudal knights because they can now stay seated and weld a long lance without fear of being unseated. A similar emphasis is put on heavy cavalry in China for the same reasons as Europe . Europe continues to export gold and silver from the West because it was what was valued heavily by eastern merchants as a medium of exchange (pretty much accepted everywhere ). By the 10th century C. E. China was in decline again under the Song dynasty and lost control over much of the central and northwestern parts of the trade route. They began to emphasize more the of the southern maritime routes and thus because of this invent the maritime compass that will make its way across to the West and later lead to an age of discovery with Portugal at the end of this timeframe circa 1450 C. E. beginning to search out another maritime route d irectly to Asia by exploring the African coast using Chinese inspired compasses and Islamic maps of the Indian Ocean . With arrival of the Mongol conquests in the 1200s C. E. , once again the Silk Road has a sponsor to protect the merchants and trade thrives between East Asia, the Islamic Middle East and Europe . Silk, porcelain, and paper continue to come from the East along with gunpowder. Gunpowder now shows up on the Silk Road because of the Mongols taking it from China and using it in a more direct fashion in its conquests . Cannon now appear at the end of the timeframe being used by the Ottoman’s in their conquest of Constantinople in 1453 and by the Portuguese on their caravel ships . Central and South Asian products still include spices and animals but now cotton also begins to appear within the trade out of India . Because the Mongols controlled so much territory from China to Russia and the Middle East (they conquered Baghdad and overthrew the Abbasid caliphate), the Silk Road prospered like no other time and products flowed freely from East to West . A continuity throughout the timeframe was the fact that luxury goods usually drove the trade. Because products had to travel such great distances and thus there were so many middle men, only the very wealthy could partake of the trade . That is why gold and silver were preferred exchange mediums for the trade of silk and other fine eastern products . Another pattern of interaction was cultural expression and diffusion . In the early part of the timeframe (200 B. C. E. -1450 CE), there was very little cultural influence occurring . This is because intermediaries carried on the trade between the Han and Roman empires and the two imperial powers really had no contact directly with each other . During the Tang dynasty in the middle of the timeframe, this actually changes. Persian dance and the game of polo are introduced in China as well as musical and clothing styles which become popular . Chinese paper influenced the Islamic and European medieval periods with written works now becoming more the norm in saving and transmitting cultural knowledge such as written bibles, histories, math and other intellectual discoveries . At the end of the timeframe during the 13th through 15th centuries the Mongols were instrumental in the dissemination of knowledge throughout the Middle East territory they controlled. Islamic scholars in all fields have their works spread from Europe to China . In Europe, a Renaissance emerges due to reconnection to Silk Road trade because of the Crusades which began in the 10th century and continued into the 13th century. Crusaders reconnected with Eastern luxury goods such as spices and cloth but were also culturally influenced when they saw large vibrant, urban cities . It changed their outlook on life in general. Some ancient works such as the Greeks were re-introduced due to reconnection with the Byzantine Empire and the Abbasid caliphate . Also eastern works were transmitted along the Silk Road thus inspiring Muslim and European scholars. The works of Ibn Battuta and Marco Polo become hits in Europe and the Muslim world because they opened the eyes of the people to the broader world that existed. Marco Polo actually traveled under protection of the Mongol Khan while Battuta traveled in the Muslim realm due to his being more comfortable in Arabic speaking kingdoms that practiced his form of religion . The station of merchants also changed by the end of the period in China because of the Mongols. During the Han period and other dynasties, Confucian principles kept merchants at the bottom the social hierarchy. Because the Mongols valued the profits they could generate, merchants under the Yuan period held much higher stations in life . A continuity in this period was the constant cultural diffusion that took place as intermediaries engaged one another and kingdoms became acquainted with each other. Lifestyles changed and peoples were introduced to new knowledge throughout the period. Religion, art, and knowledge were continually diffused throughout the history of the Silk Road . The last pattern of interactions that was evident on the Silk Road was that of religion . Trade was a great disseminator of culture along the routes of trade and religion was one of those cultural traits that spread throughout the period. Three major religions spread along the Silk Road- Christianity, Buddhism and Islam . Buddhism appeared early on the Silk Road in roughly the first century B. C. E. It was forced out of India due to its rejection by the Hindu majority but found homes in places like Tibet, China, Japan, and Southeast Asia . Many steppe peoples adopted it because it fit into their animistic religions of a universal spirit. Lower class people and women adopted it due to its equalitarian nature and its promise of an afterlife . It spread throughout the timeframe appearing in China and Japan during the Tang dynasty and being reinforced in places like Tibet and Mongolia when the Mongols adopted it . Christianity also spread along the trade routes in Western Asia but was blocked from spreading any farther eastward than the Byzantine Empire due to the rise of Islam in the middle of the period during the 7th and 8th centuries . Because of the adoption of Islam by the Il-Khan khanate, Islam would make its way into southern China by the end of the period in the 14th and 15th centuries . Christianity and Buddhism were spread by missionaries while Islam was primarily spread by merchants and by the sword. Buddhism as stated earlier continually spread throughout the period and found refuge primarily in Central, East, and Southeast Asia . It did not spread westward due to Islam and Christianity having hold on western Asia and Europe . In conclusion, there were several patterns of interaction on the Silk Road due to the many different cultures that interacted on it. It influenced cultural expressions, spread of religion, and as well as products and ideas that changed many cultures such as the stirrup and gunpowder to name a couple. These interactions were not all positive however in that one of the byproducts of this trade led to the spread of bubonic plague from China to Europe. The Black Death as it was called in Europe is one of the reasons that Silk Road trade diminished as well as the isolationist policies of the Ming emperors who abhorred all things â€Å"foreign† and the collapse of the Mongol empire due to internal fragmentation. Trade systems such as the trans-Saharan trade and the Indian Ocean maritime system had many of the same cultural impacts as the Silk Road and in total created early global networks of trade .

Ethical Banking in UK Research Proposal Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4250 words

Ethical Banking in UK - Research Proposal Example This is interesting because the financial sector as a whole is reported to be reeling from the aftereffects of the sub-prime mortgage crisis in the US, the continued depreciation of the US dollar and rising global inflation. In fact, major banks and financial institutions around the world were reported to have suffered losses reaching $435 billion in July 2008, with many banks experiencing severe liquidity problems. Is it possible that ethical banking shields its practitioners from negative external factors We aim to find out the answer to this question. Business ethics in general is the application of moral principles in the making of business decisions (Rushton, 2002)), such that it places a premium on social responsibility. This responsibility represents the positive actions or responses that a company takes to fulfill its responsibilities towards its stakeholders, to the environment and to society as a whole. In the view of some economists, however, there is one and only social responsibility of business: to use its resources and engage in activities designed to increase its profits. Thus, when firms experience resource shortages as to threaten their very existence, they attack this problem by cheating on their social responsibility. ... That way, the firms give the false impression that they comply with the rules. To address internal resource shortages, such as inadequate capacity and expertise, they overestimate costs, falsify training records, pay excessive compensation and give undeserved promotions. To address external shortages, such as lack of raw materials, they arrange unethical deals with suppliers or service providers. These activities are taboo to ethical banks. 2. Aim & Objectives2.1 Aim Examine how the operations of ethical banks in UK differ from those of their counterparts in the conventional banking sector to see if the former thrive because of ethical banking or in spite of it. 2.2 Objectives (1) Measure the performance of ethical banks in economic terms to see if it is a feasible or reasonable line of business. (2) Observe how ethical banks compete with conventional banks in terms of profitability, size of clients and quality of service. (3) Discover the reasons that made the owners of ethical banks decide to go into this line of banking. Business ethics in general is the application of moral principles in the making of business decisions (Rushton, 2002)), such that it places a premium on social responsibility. This responsibility represents the positive actions or responses that a company takes to fulfill its responsibilities towards its stakeholders, to the environment and to society as a whole. In the view of some economists, however, there is one and only social responsibility of business: to use its resources and engage in activities designed to increase its profits. Thus, when firms experience resource shortages